Motivation
The interpretation of conventional residuals for generalized linear (mixed) and other hierarchical statistical models is often problematic. As an example, here the result of conventional Deviance, Pearson and raw residuals for two Poisson GLMMs, one that is lacking a quadratic effect, and one that fits the data perfectly. Could you tell which is the correct model?
Just for completeness - it was the second one. But don’t get too excited if you got it right. Probably you were just lucky - I can’t really tell a difference. But even so, would you have added a quadratic effect, instead of adding an overdispersion correction? The point here is that misspecifications in GL(M)Ms cannot reliably be diagnosed with standard residual plots, and thus GLMMs are often not as thoroughly checked as they should.
One reason why GL(M)Ms residuals are harder to interpret is that the expected distribution of the data (aka predictive distribution) changes with the fitted values. Reweighting with the expected dispersion, as done in Pearson residuals, or using deviance residuals, helps to some extent, but it does not lead to visually homogeneous residuals, even if the model is correctly specified. As a result, standard residual plots, when interpreted in the same way as for linear models, seem to show all kind of problems, such as non-normality, heteroscedasticity, even if the model is correctly specified. Questions on the R mailing lists and forums show that practitioners are regularly confused about whether such patterns in GL(M)M residuals are a problem or not.
But even experienced statistical analysts currently have few options to diagnose misspecification problems in GLMMs. In my experience, the current standard practice is to eyeball the residual plots for major misspecifications, potentially have a look at the random effect distribution, and then run a test for overdispersion, which is usually positive, after which the model is modified towards an overdispersed / zero-inflated distribution. This approach, however, has a number of drawbacks, notably:
Overdispersion is often the result of missing predictors or a misspecified model structure. Standard residual plots make it difficult to identify these problems by examining residual correlations or patterns of residuals against predictors.
Not all overdispersion is the same. For count data, the negative binomial creates a different distribution than adding observation-level random effects to the Poisson. Once overdispersion is corrected for, such violations of distributional assumptions are not detectable with standard overdispersion tests (because the tests only looks at total dispersion), and nearly impossible to see visually from standard residual plots.
Dispersion frequently varies with predictors (heteroscedasticity). This can have a significant effect on the inference. While it is standard to test for heteroscedasticity in linear regressions, heteroscedasticity is currently hardly ever tested for in GLMMs, although it is likely as frequent and influential.
Moreover, if residuals are checked, they are usually checked conditional on the fitted random effect estimates. Thus, standard checks only check the final level of the random structure in a GLMM. One can perform extra checks on the random effects, but it is somewhat unsatisfactory that there is no check on the entire model structure.
DHARMa aims at solving these problems by creating readily interpretable residuals for generalized linear (mixed) models that are standardized to values between 0 and 1, and that can be interpreted as intuitively as residuals for the linear model. This is achieved by a simulation-based approach, similar to the Bayesian p-value or the parametric bootstrap, that transforms the residuals to a standardized scale. The basic steps are:
Simulate new response data from the fitted model for each observation.
For each observation, calculate the empirical cumulative density function for the simulated observations, which describes the possible values (and their probability) at the predictor combination of the observed value, assuming the fitted model is correct.
The residual is then defined as the value of the empirical density function at the value of the observed data, so a residual of 0 means that all simulated values are larger than the observed value, and a residual of 0.5 means half of the simulated values are larger than the observed value.
These steps are visualized in the following figure
The key advantage of this definition is that the so-defined residuals always have the same, known distribution, independent of the model that is fit, if the model is correctly specified. To see this, note that, if the observed data was created from the same data-generating process that we simulate from, all values of the cumulative distribution should appear with equal probability. That means we expect the distribution of the residuals to be flat, regardless of the model structure (Poisson, binomial, random effects and so on).
I currently prepare a more exact statistical justification for the approach in an accompanying paper, but if you must provide a reference in the meantime, I would suggest citing
Dunn, K. P., and Smyth, G. K. (1996). Randomized quantile residuals. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 5, 1-10.
Gelman, A. & Hill, J. Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models Cambridge University Press, 2006
p.s.: DHARMa stands for “Diagnostics for HierArchical Regression Models” - which, strictly speaking, would make DHARM. But in German, Darm means intestines; plus, the meaning of DHARMa in Hinduism makes the current abbreviation so much more suitable for a package that tests whether your model is in harmony with your data:
From Wikipedia, 28/08/16: In Hinduism, dharma signifies behaviours that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and ‘right way of living’.
